Available in Russian
Author: Mikhail Krasnov
DOI: 10.21128/1812-7126-2017-4-13-29
Keywords: democracy; draw; elections; electoral qualification; form of government; form of state; universal suffrage
For over two and a half millennia democracy has undergone an evolution. It has emerged along with monarchy and aristocracy as one of three forms of state, and was for the most part perceived negatively both by antiquity thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle and modern thinkers such as Hobbes and Rousseau, although the latter did not criticize democracy in principle, instead considering it unrealistic. But since the late eighteenth century, democracy has begun to be associated with complex humanitarian values, particularly freedom, equality, and recognition of human dignity. However, the essence of democracy – which is giving power to the people – has not changed. And since this essence is reflected, among other places, in the gradual expansion of the categories of voters and has led to universal suffrage, the author believes that democracy may lose the substance for which it was enthusiastically embraced two centuries ago. Based on this standpoint, the article discusses possible ways of neutralizing this danger, including a narrowing down of the electorate. The author believes that neither random selection nor voter qualifications nor unequal voting is appropriate to ensure a competent electorate. For this reason, the author suggests a different approach that can improve the meaningfulness of voting and the responsibility of the voter. With Leon Duguit setting the foundation of citizen participation in elections as a function and not a right, the author presents the reader such propositions as registering individuals as voters such as to oblige them to participate in elections, as well as introducing required testing to that one must pass to become a voter.
About the author: Mikhail Krasnov – Doctor of Sciences in Law, Tenured Professor, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia.
Citation: Krasnov M. (2017) Izbiratel’ kak “dolzhnost’” [А voter as a “function”]. Sravnitel’noe konstitutsionnoe obozrenie, no. 4, pp. 13–29. (In Russian).
References
Akvinskiy F. (1990) O pravlenii gosudarey [On sovereign rule]. In: Politicheskie struktury epokhi feodalizma v Zapadnoy Evrope VI–XVII vv. [Political structures of the feudal epoch in western Europe during the 6th to 17th centuries], Leningrad: Nauka, pp. 217–244. (In Russian).
Alekseev N.N. (1998) O garantiynom gosudarstve [On the guaranteed state]. In: Alekseev N.N. Russkiy narod i gosudarstvo [The Russian people and the state], Moscow: Agraf, pp. 372–385. (In Russian).
Andreeva G.N., Starostina I.A. (2010) Izbiratel’noe pravo v Rossii i v zarubezhnykh stranakh: uchebnoe posobie [Voter rights in Russia and in foreign countries: a textbook], A.A.Klishas (ed.), Moscow: Norma. (In Russian).
Auzan A.A. (2007) “Koleya” rossiyskoy modernizatsii [The “gauge” of Russian modernization]. Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost’, no. 6, pp. 54–60. (In Russian).
Avtonomov A.S. (2002) Izbiratel’naya vlast’ [Electoral authority], Moscow: Prava cheloveka. (In Russian).
Baunov A. (2017) Strana-dissident. Chto ne tak s global’nym buntom Rossii [Dissident Country: What is wrong with the global protest of Russia]. Available at: http://carnegie.ru/commentary/71286 (accessed: 21.06.2017). (In Russian).
Berman G.Dzh. (1998) Zapadnaya traditsiya prava: epokha formirovaniya [Berman G.J. The Western tradition of law: Epoch of formation], 2nd ed., Moscow: Izdatel’stvo MGU; INFRA-M; NORMA. (In Russian).
Chicherin B.N. (2016) O narodnom predstavitel’stve [On the people’s representation], Saint Petesburg: Nauka. (In Russian).
Dal’ R. (1999) Smeshchayushchiesya granitsy demokraticheskikh pravleniy [The dislodged borders of democratic rule]. Available at: http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Polit/dal/sm_gran.php (accessed: 10.10.2013). (In Russian).
Dal’ R.A. (2010) Poliarkhiya: uchastie oppozitsii [Polyarchy: Participation of the opposition], S.Denikina, V.Baranov (transl.), Moscow: Izdatel’skiy dom Vysshey shkoly ekonomiki. (In Russian).
Dyugi L. (1908) Konstitutsionnoe pravo. Obshchaya teoriya gosudarstva [Duguit L. Constitutional law. A general theory of the state], A.S.Yashchenko, V.A.Krasnokutskogo, B.I.Syromyatnikova (transl.), Moscow: Tipografiya Tovarishchestva I.D.Sytina. (In Russian).
Ellinek G. (1908) Obshchee uchenie o gosudarstve. Pravo sovremennogo gosudarstva. T.1 [A general teaching of the state. The law of the modern state. vol. 1], S.I.Gessen (ed.), 2nd ed., Saint Petersburg: Izdanie Yuridicheskogo knizhnogo magazina N.K.Martynova. (In Russian).
Galeev K. (2017) Prezident Krasnogo poyasa. Pochemu prezidentstvo Trampa protivorechit dolgosrochnym interesam SSHA [The red-belt president. Why the Trump presidency contradicts the long-term interests of the United States]. Novaya gazeta. 23 January. (In Russian).
Gobbs T. (1991) Leviafan, ili Materiya, forma i vlast’ gosudarstva cerkovnogo i grazhdanskogo [Gobbs Th. Leviathan, or Material: The form and authority of the church and civil state]. In: Gobbs T. Sochineniya. T.2. [Writings. vol. 2], V.V.Sokolov (ed.), Moscow: pp. 3–545 (In Russian).
Il’in I.A. (1993) O sushchnosti pravosoznaniya [On the essence of legal conscious], Moscow: Rarog. (In Russian).
Il’in I.A. (1996) Osnovy gosudarstvennogo ustroystva [The foundations of state order]. In: Il’in I.A. Osnovy gosudarstvennogo ustroystva. Proekt Osnovnogo Zakona Rossii [The foundations of state order: A project on the basic law of Russia], Moscow: Rarog, pp. 42–59. (In Russian).
Ivanchenko A.V. (ed.) (1999) Izbiratel’noe pravo i izbiratel’nyy protsess v Rossiyskoy Federatsii: uchebnik dlya vuzov [Electoral law and electoral process in the Russian Federation: A textbook for universities], Moscow: Norma. (In Russian).
Ivanyan E.A. (ed.) (2001) Inauguratsionnye rechi prezidentov SSHA ot Dzhordzha Vashingtona do Dzhordzha Busha (1789–2001 gg.) s istoricheskim kommentariem [Inaugural speeches of presidents of the United States from George Washington to George Bush (1789 to 2001)], Moscow: Strategiya. (In Russian).
Kantorovich E.H. (2015) Dva tela korolya: Issledovanie po srednevekovoy politicheskoy teologii [Two bodies of the king: Research on medieval political theology], M.A.Boytsov, A.Yu.Seregina (transl.), 2nd ed., Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Instituta Gaydara. (In Russian).
Kaplan B. (2012) Mif o ratsional’nom izbiratele: pochemu demokratii vybirayut plokhuyu politiku [The myth of the rational voter: Why democracies choose bad policy], D.Gorbatenko (transl.), A.Kuryaev (ed.), Moscow: IRISEN; Mysl’. (In Russian).
Korkunov N.M. (2004) Lektsii po obshchey teorii prava [Lectures on the general theory of law], 2nd ed., Saint Petersburg: Yuridicheskiy tsentr Press. (In Russian).
Kovler A.I. (1997) Krizis demokratii? Demokratiya na rubezhe XXI veka [A crisis of democracy? Democracy on the frontier of the 21st century], Moscow: Institute of State and Law, RAS. (In Russian).
Krauch K. (2010) Postdemokratiya [Post-democracy], N.V.Edel’man (transl.), Moscow: Izdatel’skiy dom Vysshey shkoly ekonomiki. (In Russian).
Lazarevskiy N.I. (1908) Lektsii po russkomu gosudarstvennomu pravu. T.I: Konstitutsionnoe pravo[Lectures on Russian state law. vol. I: Constitutional law], Saint Petesburg: Tipografiya aktsionernogo obshchestva “Slovo”. (In Russian).
Lenin V.I. (1960) V khvoste u monarkhicheskoy burzhuazii ili vo glave revolyutsionnogo proletariata i krest’yanstva? [In the tail of the monarchical bourgeoisie or at the head of revolutionary proletariat and serfdom]. In: Lenin V.I. Polnoe sobranie sochineniy. T.11 [Complete collection of writings. vol. 11], Moscow: Politizdat. (In Russian).
Magaziner Ya.M. (1922) Obshchee uchenie o gosudarstve: Kurs lektsiy, chitannykh v Petrogradskom universitete v 1918–1922 gg. [General teachings on the state: A course of lectures read at Petrograd University in from 1918 to 1922], 2nd ed., Petrograd: Central’nyy izdatel’skiy kooperativnyy soyuz “Kooperatsiya“. (In Russian).
Mau V. (1999) Demokratiya dolzhna sebya zashchishchat’ [Democracy must defend itself]. Izvestiya, 14 May. (In Russian).
Mau V. (2005) Logika rossiyskoy modernizatsii [The logic of Russian modernization]. Available at: http://www.gazeta.ru/comments/2005/07/04_a_309315.shtml (accessed: 15.08.2006). (In Russian).
Montesk’e Sh. (1955) O dukhe zakonov [Montesquieu Ch.-L. On the spirit of the law]. In: Montesk’e Sh. Izbrannye proizvedeniya [Montesquieu Ch.-L. Selected works], M.P.Baskin (ed.), Moscow: Gospolitizdat. (In Russian).
Moskovichi S. (1996) Vek tolp [A century of crowds], Moscow: Centr psikhologii i psikhoterapii. (In Russian).
Nisnevich Yu.A. (ed.) (2013) Indeksy razvitiya gosudarstv mira: spravochnik [Indices of state development across the world: A reference], Moscow: Izdatel’skiy dom Vysshey shkoly ekonomiki. (In Russian).
Nort D., Uollis Dzh., Vajngast B. (2011) Nasilie i social’nye poryadki: Kontseptual’nye ramki dlya interpretatsii pis’mennoy istorii chelovechestva [Violence and social order: A conceptual framework for interpreting the written history of humans], D.Uzlaner, M.Markov, D.Raskov, A.Raskova (transl.), Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Instituta Gajdara. (In Russian).
Novgorodtsev P.I. (1995) Demokratiya na rasput’e [Democracy at a crossroads]. In: Novgorodtsev P.I. Sochineniya [Writings], Moscow: Raritet, pp. 388–404. (In Russian).
Ortega-i-Gasset H. (2002) Vosstanie mass [The rise of the masses], Moscow: AST. (In Russian).
Platon. (2003) Politika, ili Gosudarstvo [Politics, or the State]. In: Platon, Aristotel’. Politika. Nauka ob upravlenii gosudarstvom [The science of state administration], Moscow: EKSMO; Saint Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, pp. 307–654. (In Russian).
Popper K.R. (1992) Otkrytoe obshchestvo i ego vragi. T.2: Vremya lzheprorokov: Gegel’, Marks i drugie orakuly [The open society and its enemies: The time of false-prophets: Hegel, Marx, and other oracles]. V.N.Sadovskiy (ed.), in 2 vols., Moscow: Feniks; Mezhdunarodnyy fond “Kul’turnaya initsiativa”. (In Russian).
Pshevorskiy A. (2006) Zashchita minimalistskoy kontseptsii demokratii [A defense of the minimalist concept of democracy]. In: Teoriya i praktika demokratii: Izbrannye teksty [The theory and practice of democracy: Selected texts], V.L.Inozemtsev, B.G.Kapustin (eds.), Moscow: Ladomir, pp. 10–15. (In Russian).
Russo Zh.-Zh. (1998) Ob obshchestvennom dogovore, ili printsipy politicheskogo prava [Rousseau J.-J. On the social contract, or principles of political law]. In: Russo Zh.-Zh. Ob obshchestvennom dogovore: Traktaty [Rousseau J.-J. On the social contract: Treatise], Moscow: Kanon-Press, Kuchkovo pole, pp. 195–322. (In Russian).
Satarov G.A. (2006) Instituty haosa v social’nom poryadke: ot pervobytnogo obshchestva do postmodernizma [Institutes of chaos in the social order: From the first society to postmodernism], Saint Petesburg: St.Petersburg University of the Humanities and Social Sciences (In Russian).
Shmitt K. (2013) Legal’nost’ i legitimnost’ [Schmitt C. Legality and legitimacy]. In: Shmitt K. Gosudarstvo: Pravo i politika [Schmitt C. The state: Law and policy], O.V.Kil’dyushov (transl.), V.V.Anashvili, O.V.Kil’dyushov (compilers), Moscow: Territoriya budushchego, pp. 221–304. (In Russian).
Shumpeter J.A. (1995) Kapitalizm, socializm i demokratiya [Schumpeter J.A. Capitalism, socialism, and democracy], V.S.Avtonomov (ed.), Moscow: Ekonomika. Available at: http://www.libertarium.ru/lib_capsocdem (accessed: 04.05.2011). (In Russian).
Toynbi A.Dzh. (2009) Issledovanie istorii: Vozniknovenie, rost i raspad civilizatsiy [Toynbee A.J. A study of history: the genesis, growth, and fall of civilization], K.Ya.Kozhurin (transl.), Moscow: AST; AST Moskva. (In Russian).
Tokvil’ A. de (2000) Demokratiya v Amerike [Democracy in America], Moscow: Ves’ Mir. (In Russian).
Trubetskoy E.N. (1994) Vseobshchee, pryamoe, taynoe i ravnoe [General, direct, secret, and equal]. In: Trubetskoy E.N. Smysl zhizni [The meaning of live], A.P.Polyakova, P.P.Apryshko (compilers), Moscow: Respublika, pp. 298–302. (In Russian).